Country Report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Country Report - Assignment Example On the other hand, the discovery of oil in the 1940s transformed Qatar (O’Brien, 2010, p.412). At present, it has high standard of living with highest GDP per capita in the world as of 2010 of more than USD 88,000 (Greenfield, 2012). For the present paper a comparison of the fiscal policies and inflation rates of these two countries are considered. Furthermore, in the UK, during the regime of the labor governments, government’s size and spending grew significantly. Compounding the budget deficit Labor government bailout several British banks in 2008 and indulged in massive government’s borrowing (United Kingdom, 2013). In 2010, after formation of Prime Minister David Cameron’s Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government austerity measures were implanted rigorously. In early 2012, the economy returned to recession and growth averaged zero over the year as a whole. In its budget announcement of March 20, the UK govt. decided to stick to its def icit-reduction plan, which is broadly fiscally neutral (United Kingdom, 2013). UK Fiscal Policy and Inflation rate- UK Government’s fiscal plan is underpinned by a forward-looking fiscal mandate to achieve cyclically-adjusted current balance by the end of the rolling, five-year estimate period, as cited in the June Budget 2010. The fiscal mandate directs fiscal policy decisions over the medium term, ensuring that the Government sets plans steady with a reduction in the structural deficit. The fiscal mandate is based on: †¢ A cyclically-adjusted aggregate, to allow some fiscal elasticity at times of economic uncertainty; †¢ A rolling five-year forecast period, to ensure that fiscal consolidation is delivered over a realistic and probable timeframe; and †¢ The current balance, to protect the most productive public investment expenditure. The establishment of Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR) has significantly enhanced the credibility of the UK’s fisca l framework by ensuring that the Government’s fiscal policy decisions are based on independent forecasts for the economy and public finances (Copy of the Budget Report, 2013 p12). Figure-1  (Deficit, national debt and government borrowing - how has it changed since 1946? 2013) UK inflation has been above target since December 2009 and the central bank has quoted this as one reason for not resumption of its bond repurchase program. High inflation has had an erosive impact on the UK economy, reducing households’ disposable income Approximately a 40% rise in food prices and the impact of rising oil and commodity prices coupled with a weakening pound, plus hikes to VAT [sales tax] and tuition fees took a huge toll on the high street (Katrina, 2013). Figure-2  Source: United Kingdom Inflation Rate, 2013 Qatar’s Fiscal policy and inflation rate- While many advanced world economies were twirling under severe recession in the recent past, Qatar has taken head on, th e global financial crisis, reflecting timely and focused policy response by the authorities. The considerable advancement of liquefied natural gas capacity, large government support to the banking system, and increase in public spending helped Qatar in sustaining high growth rates. Heavy investment in liquefied natural gas (LNG) production capacity and increases in LNG production over the last couple of years have been the main drivers of Qatar’s robust growth (Qatar Economic Statistics at a Glance, 2012,p.4) Figure-3  (Qatar Economic

Introduction to Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Introduction to Business Law - Essay Example In matters concerning offer and acceptance, communication is of paramount importance. In the given case, Eddie telephoned Adele on Monday to ask for quote for the delivery of 12 wild boar piglets to the Eagle Pub. This is not an offer. It is a mere inquiry and it does not amount to an offer. Adele informed Eddie that the piglets would cost ?1,100 each and would be delivered on Thursday morning at a cost of ?150. This is again just a piece of information and not an offer. Eddie was satisfied with the price but wanted the delivery to be made on Wednesday. From the facts, the conduct of Eddie is such that it can be construed that this was an offer. Adele promised to give an answer on the next morning via fax. She sent a fax next morning confirming that the delivery was possible on Wednesday and it would cost ?13,350 in total. According to the given facts, Eddie was not in his office on Tuesday morning. If the courts are convinced that the aforementioned offer by Eddie was a valid offer, his absence from his office on Tuesday morning would be immaterial. A question can be raised whether Adele’s fax’s communication to Jane was enough. It would also be immaterial. It is because of the establishment of ‘Postal Rule’. In Adams v Lindsell 1818 EWHC KB J59, the defendants offered the plaintiffs through a letter to sell some fleeces of wool and asked them to answer via post. The plaintiffs received the letter late due to misdirection but posted their acceptance right away. Before their acceptance could reach the defendants, the defendants contracted with another party to sell the wool. Almost a similar scenario was encountered in Henthorn v Fraser 1892 2 Ch 27. The courts, therefore, specified a definite time of acceptance via post. The acceptance of an offer would be deemed to have been made when the letter of acceptance is posted and is out of the power of the offeree. This rule can also be stretched to communications with fax. Adele’s acceptance was made when she sent the fax to Eddie’s office. It does not matter whether Eddie saw the fax or not. Since the offer was accepted, the object was legal, both parties had consideration and there was an intention to create legal relations, a contract had formed and was legally binding on both the parties. It had formed at the time when the acceptance was made. Eddie is wrong in his thinking that he owes nothing to Adele. His contract with Peter is a breach of contract with Adele. He can be sued for damages by Adele for his breach of contract. The damages would amount to a sum that puts Adele in such a financial position in which she would have been if there was no breach by Eddie. However, Adele would not be able to recover the loss of ?400. It is because the loss was too remote. In Hadley v Baxendale 1854 9 Exch 341, the defendant contracted to take the plaintiff’s mill shaft to London where it was to be used as a model to build a new one. Due to defendantà ¢â‚¬â„¢s fault, the shaft was returned late and it caused the plaintiff to lose profits. The plaintiff sued to recover damages for loss of profits. It was held that the loss caused was too remote and it could not have been recovered. Therefore, by the application of above case, Eddie would not have to compensate Adele for lost profits of ?400. Answer 2 In the given case, Adele went to Bambi Stores Ltd to purchase some animal feed. She was absolutely unalarmed and unwarned when she was hit by a fork-lift truck driven by

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy Essay Example for Free

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy Essay The Reagan Doctrine was the foreign policy in the United States, enacted by President Ronald Reagan. The doctrine was design to eradicate the communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America that were authorized and corroborated by the Soviet Union. This assignment will review by what method the United States delivered open and private backing to guerrilla and resistance movements during the Regan years. Additionally, explain the political doctrine detailed events that occurred in Afghanistan when the Soviet Union invaded. As a final point, this assignment will define the benefits and drawbacks established on the Regan Doctrine. Summarize the Situation of U. S. Diplomatic of the Regan Doctrine During the course of the initial years of the Cold War, Presidents Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter all endorsed dogmas against communism in order to enclose it. Ronald Regan prohibited their detente policy in 1979, when the Soviet Union attacked Afghanistan. This alone demonstrated that policies that only contain communism were unproductive. Regan criticized in the compromise policy when it emanated to any communist government. As an alternative, Reagan proposed the Rollback policy. The creation of the Reagan Doctrine moved from containment and dispersal to eradicating all current communist governments. Likewise, the United States wanted to rise and encourage democracy and capitalism in additional of overthrew communist administrations (Conservapedia, 2012). Execution of the Regan Doctrine was to deliver explicit and concealed support to guerrilla and resistance movements in nations were the Soviet Union wanted to feast their communists plan or where eradicate an existing regime (Conservapedia, 2012). The doctrine was in complete operation when The Soviet Union deprived of aggravation and with overpowering force attacked Afghanistan in 1979. This roll back of Soviet control met little resistance from the international community excluding Central America. Internally, Democrats in Congress advised that the Regan Doctrine would ultimately lead to a nuclear war in return; they attempted to hamper and break the enactment of the doctrine (Conservapedia, 2012). Historian Barbara Tuchman differed with Regan confrontation doctrine and desired the United States to follow the stuff goose strategy. This decision was to offer the Soviet Union with consumer goods and all the grain they needed. Nonetheless, in spite of Regans lack of foreign policy qualifications his detection to stop the â€Å"Evil Empire† would not deter him. Nevertheless, several people thought he was a precarious warmonger (Souza, 1997). Explicate the Regan Doctrine and Specific Actions and Events With the war in Afghanistan into a year, most of the international community believed that the Soviet Union was invincible and to stop them would lead into a nuclear war. In an article written in the Third World Quarterly, by Andrew Hartman titled, The Red Template: US Policy in Soviet-Occupied Afghanistan. â€Å"The broad framework of US foreign policy in the era of the Cold War, as well as other eras, the U. S. must adhere to the bottom line. This means, protecting a constructive investment environment for private business benefits† (Hartman, 2002). In 1981, former Pakistani Dictator and General Mohammed Zia al-Haq, understood US Policy bottom line. In a meeting with William Casey, the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the dictator offered Casey with a map of the Near East demonstrating how the Soviet Union occupation is moving towards Iran, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea. General Mohammed proposed that if the US does not interfere, the Soviets would produce great economic disturbance in the region (Hartman). Of course, the CIA recognized that this was not only possible but a fact. The Regan Doctrine not only stops the spread of communism but to eradicate the â€Å"Evil Empire†; is the core essence of U.  S. policy. The subsequent action was that the CIA introduced a concealed war against the Soviet Union. Just as during the Cold War, the Soviets campaign to initiate and increase was met with the reaction of U. S involvement. This state was no different. Describe the effects of these diplomatic efforts for the U. S. and other countries. As stated previously, The US foreign policy is driven by the bottom line. Communism is a threat to a capitalist country, consequently the Reagan Doctrine is only reinforced. US policy makers understood that if the Soviets were permitted to expand towards Iran, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea capitalism and democratic civilizations would be in grave endangerment. The oil rich field in those areas could not be governor by any communist regime. The chief economic motivation for hegemony in Afghanistan, Iran, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea is make sure that the U. S. provide military logistics and support to anti-Soviet armies and or guerrilla and resistance movements. The U. S. iplomatic efforts are to also keep these oil rich countries as a private interest and not under the control of a communism. The fact of U. S. reliance on foreign oil, is reason enough for involvement. An economic failure ripple effect in the Western Hemisphere would have distressed all democratic governments on both sides of the Atlantic ocean as well (Evelyn, 2011). The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Regan Doctrine The Regan Doctrine allowed the advantage of the U. S. to retain revenge for Vietnam and the invasion of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan provided that opportunity which could not be ignored (DSouza, 1997). The Pulitzer-Winning Historian Barbara Tuchman, stated that if Reagan had taken the â€Å"Stuff Goose â€Å"approach when it was offered in 1982, the â€Å"Evil Empire† would most likely still exist (DSouza). The drawbacks of the Regan Doctrine were not in absence in particular. The Iran Contra is perchance the best-known scandal connected with the policies of the Reagan Doctrine. Agreeing to the television program American Experience, broadcast on the Public Broadcasting Station (PBS), the online article and video titled, â€Å"Regan† stated, â€Å"In 1985, while Iran and Iraq were at war, Iran made a secret request to buy weapons from the United States. The detail that an embargo was established against selling weapons to Iran, and the U. S. broke their own policy to advance their international relations with Lebanon and gain more power in the Middle East was a pressure on Reagan Doctrine. Operating a covert mission to a communist regime was intolerable. Conclusion The Cold War agreeing to former United States, Sectary of State Henry Kissinger defines as, â€Å"the most stunning diplomatic feat of the modern era. † Margaret Thatcher states, â€Å"Ronald Reagan won the Cold War without firing a shot†. The Afghanistan war by delegations was just another reaction to the Soviets several efforts to expand their socialism. Before Regan, the U. S. policy was only to contain, but as with any untreated disease, the contagion would eventually spread. In the 1985 State of the Union, President Ronald Reagan stated â€Å"We must not break faith with those who are risking their liveson every continent from Afghanistan to Nicaraguato defy Soviet aggression and secure rights which have been ours from birth. Support for freedom fighters is self-defense† (Regan, 1985).

Preventing the Spread of Nosocomial Infections

Preventing the Spread of Nosocomial Infections Thomas Elliott   Nosocomial is a term derived from two Greek words: nosus meaning a diseaseor ailment and komeion meaning to take care of. By definition, nosocomial infections are those that are acquired by patients while under direct medical care. Nosocomial infections are a major safety concern for both medical professionals and their patients and have been linked to an increase in morbidity, mortality and an increase length of stay (Mehta et al., 2014). These patients require more therapeutic and diagnostic interventions, endure preventable suffering, and occupy scarce bed-days. This has a systemic effect on our medical infrastructure, forcing hospitals to spend more. Consequently, insurance companies bridge the gap by charging more for their benefits. Nurses have the responsibility of beneficence and play a crucial role in stopping the spread of nosocomial infections. It is the foundation on which our nursing procedures and techniques are grounded. The American Nurses Association (ANA) promotes e vidence-based practices that can be utilized by clinicians to prevent nosocomial infections so that, in collaboration with the Affordable Care Act, patients will have more knowledge about the care they receive, better outcomes and shorter hospital stays. Preventing nosocomial infections in patients is a major responsibility for nurses as well as other healthcare providers because it greatly reduces patient mortality, length of stay and health care costs. I worked with a 77-year-old male patient who was recovering from multiple ailments on the intensive care floor. He contracted ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP) after being on mechanical ventilation for 30 days. Upon treatment of his pneumonia, he developed multiple drug resistant organisms from his antibiotic therapy rendering his illness virtually incurable. Ventilator associated pneumonia is a nosocomial infection and patients have a 1%-4% chance of contracting this illness for every day they are on mechanical ventilation (Chastre Fagon, 2002). This disease is preventable and two questions have been formulated to explore strategies on its prevention: What is the most important aspect of patient care for the prevention of transmission of nosocomial infections and what patient p opulations are the most vulnerable? Aseptic technique is a procedural process by which a clinician establishes an environment that is free from bacteria, viruses and other harmful microorganisms in order to provide care to a patient. This technique is required anytime that a patients skin is perforated or when a sterile body cavity is entered such as when providing ventilator care (Schub Woten, 2015). It includes meticulous hand hygiene and the use of sterile attire and equipment. Approximately one third of nosocomial infections occur when aseptic technique is not followed and is transmitted from patient to patient through direct contact by a healthcare provider (Lewis et al, 2011, p. 240).   Because a large portion of nosocomial infections are transmitted by healthcare providers, proper hand washing and the use of protective equipment are the single most important measures in infection control (Saloojee Steenhoff, 2001). The hands are the most common way microorganisms are transmitted between patients, so it is imperative for health care providers to wash their hands vigorously for 15 seconds before and after leaving the room and when moving from one task to another (Mehta et al., 2014). These guidelines are backed by evidence-based practice and are established to protect patients, especially those who are the most vulnerable to infection. Patients receiving health care are exposed to a variety of different microorganisms from clinicians, other patients and even from hospital visitors. Susceptibility can be attributed to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The most important intrinsic factor that determines susceptibility towards acquiring nosocomial infections is age. Older adults and the elderly population are two to three times more likely to develop nosocomial infections than the younger population (Lewis et al, 2011, p. 240).   Typically, the elderly have more comorbidities, are more immunocompromised and have longer hospital stays which increases their chances of developing nosocomial infections. Extrinsic factors include surgical or invasive procedures such as the use of a ventilator, organ transplants, implanted foreign bodies or immunosuppressive medications and personal exposure. These extrinsic factors bypass the normal defensive barriers of the skin and mucous membranes, providing foci where organi sms can flourish. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be controlled by healthcare providers through the application and knowledge of evidence-based infection control practices such as aseptic technique. Patients have very little control over the factors that affect their health during hospitalization and rely on the healthcare providers to stay diligent. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) in coordination with the American Nurses Association (ANA) has implemented strategies for clinicians to both reduce the likelihood of nosocomial infections and empower patients with knowledge regarding which hospitals provide the safest practices. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) was established to provide health insurance for all Americans and to equip them with adequate knowledge regarding the risks and benefits of where they are receiving their care. Although patients covered under the act will not need to pay out of pocket for the treatment of nosocomial infections, they will need to pay for insurance claims related to medications, follow-up care, lab work and rehab. These claims can drag on for years. Because patient safety is a top priority, the ACA has rolled out a mandate which requires hospitals to be held accountable for nosocomial infections. This includes improving infrastructure, insurance requirements as well as reduced payments from Medicare and state Medicaid programs.   The ACA has also established a uniform online reference center for the public to utilize which allows them to check the prevalence of nosocomial infections at their local hospitals. Patients can then make educated decisions on where they ar e likely to receive the safest healthcare. Patient perception of the environment and care they receive is tied to financial incentives for hospitals which is measured by patient satisfaction surveys. The survey includes questions that ask patients about the perceived cleanliness of the hospital, quality of care and if they would recommend the specific hospital. These elements included in the ACA are designed to protect, educate and to empower patients to make the right healthcare decisions. The American Nurses Association (ANA) as well has developed evidence-based guidelines for nurses and other healthcare providers to utilize in order to prevent nosocomial infections and improve patient outcomes. Emergent threats to patient safety, such as nosocomial infections, during a hospital stay require nurses and other healthcare providers to be equipped and educated with the latest research to protect themselves and their patients against infection. The ANA in collaboration with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have developed a specialty organization called the Nursing Infection Control Education Network (NICE Network) which provides training courses for nurses to improve adherence to infection prevention practices. This program keeps nurses up-to-date on the latest research regarding infection prevention such as vigorous hand washing for 15 seconds and the use of gloves, gown and a mask when working in a sterile environment (ANA, 2017). These measures are aimed at reducing healthcare costs for patients and for improving their outcomes. The ANA described this method of care through the use of an inverted pyramid of priorities. This model represents primary care as the foundation of our nursing practice and should be the highest priority for providing care by focusing on prevention of complications and adverse events (American Nurses Association, 2008). This shift of thinking requires nurses to assume a more holistic approach to their practice not only by focusing on the physical ailment of the patient but in caring for the entire person. In so doing, nurses reduce their risk of inadvertently transmitting nosocomial infections to their patients while providing care for another reason. Health care is becoming less accessible and more expensive for patients so it is imperative that providers stay diligent and safe with their practices as to not deter people from seeking medical attention. Nurses and other health care providers do not intend to spread disease but unfortunately, they become the vectors and can spread infection to their patients without knowing it. This is why the ANA has implemented simple, evidenced-based preventative strategies to be taught in the form of classes to significantly reduce transmission rates and to increase compliance with and adoption of safest evidence-based practices by health care providers. The ACA has established a form of accountability for hospitals along with providing the general public with information regarding nosocomial infections at their local hospitals. These measures have been implemented to protect our patients, especially the most vulnerable from acquiring these infections and to reduce the overall rate nationwide o f nosocomial infections.

The Ruin :: Free Essay Writer

The Ruin "Skipping, yelling the sun poured through the trees onto their small happy faces. Eyes twinkling, gleaming with joy. Long brunette shimmery hair bouncing with each step. I remember..." Each hot summer day seemed endless; picnics, playing house, dolls, applying make-up. Alyssa and Ashley were sisters more than that, they were best friends. They each had a spray of freckles across cute little turnip noses, grins that would light up a room. Everyday they would grab snacks putting them into their favorite blankets, small enough that their little hands could hold. After stuffing their favorite foods into their blankets they journeyed to a beautiful pond about a mile away from the house. There they played and swam for hours on end. Every direction the girls looked flowers of all colors bloomed; mostly black-eyed susans. When the wind blew blew just right, the trees would sway over the pond creating ripples in the water. The beach was covered with pebbles. The sound of laughter was everywhere. One of the neighbors had given the girls a row boat to play with in the water. The girls would jump from side to side rocking the boat until it almost tipped, it was a sight. One hot afternoon, Ashley felt sick. Her mother made her stay in bed, while Alyssa was to go outside so she wouldn't become sick too. Not quite sure what to do she ventured down the road. As she walked, she collected an assortment of wild flowers; sprays of yellows, pinks and whites. She ended up at the pond where her sister and she had played so many times before. Noticing the green wooden boat floating in the center she saw her sisters favorite doll. She knew that Ashley would feel better if she held her doll in her own small hands. So Alyssa began to wade out into the pond. The water just barely reaching her cute turnip nose. She reached up to pull the boat down close to her face, but the boat hit her head and knocked her unconcious. Alyssa didn't come home that night. When they found her she was afloat ontop the water. Her brunette curls had become stringy black. In the hands of this angelic little girl was her sisters doll. Never will I forget her, she was the only sister I ever had. The Ruin :: Free Essay Writer The Ruin "Skipping, yelling the sun poured through the trees onto their small happy faces. Eyes twinkling, gleaming with joy. Long brunette shimmery hair bouncing with each step. I remember..." Each hot summer day seemed endless; picnics, playing house, dolls, applying make-up. Alyssa and Ashley were sisters more than that, they were best friends. They each had a spray of freckles across cute little turnip noses, grins that would light up a room. Everyday they would grab snacks putting them into their favorite blankets, small enough that their little hands could hold. After stuffing their favorite foods into their blankets they journeyed to a beautiful pond about a mile away from the house. There they played and swam for hours on end. Every direction the girls looked flowers of all colors bloomed; mostly black-eyed susans. When the wind blew blew just right, the trees would sway over the pond creating ripples in the water. The beach was covered with pebbles. The sound of laughter was everywhere. One of the neighbors had given the girls a row boat to play with in the water. The girls would jump from side to side rocking the boat until it almost tipped, it was a sight. One hot afternoon, Ashley felt sick. Her mother made her stay in bed, while Alyssa was to go outside so she wouldn't become sick too. Not quite sure what to do she ventured down the road. As she walked, she collected an assortment of wild flowers; sprays of yellows, pinks and whites. She ended up at the pond where her sister and she had played so many times before. Noticing the green wooden boat floating in the center she saw her sisters favorite doll. She knew that Ashley would feel better if she held her doll in her own small hands. So Alyssa began to wade out into the pond. The water just barely reaching her cute turnip nose. She reached up to pull the boat down close to her face, but the boat hit her head and knocked her unconcious. Alyssa didn't come home that night. When they found her she was afloat ontop the water. Her brunette curls had become stringy black. In the hands of this angelic little girl was her sisters doll. Never will I forget her, she was the only sister I ever had.

Essay on Song of Solomon: The Names of a Society -- Song Solomon essay

Song of Solomon: The Names of a Society    Think of a time when the black society was still getting used to the word freedom and the white society hated the thought of it. The book Song of Solomon, written by Toni Morrison in 1977, takes place in Michigan on the shores of Lake Superior. The book emphasizes the racial and social tensions between blacks and whites between the 1930s and the 1960s. The Dead family goes through many phases of self-discovery throughout the story. In an effort to hide his southern, working class roots, Macon Dead, an upper-class northern black businessman tries to insulate his family from the danger and despair of the rank and file blacks with whom he shares the neighborhood. Macon can not keep this from influencing his family when he learns that his son has different plans. The book introduces many characters that have received their names from yearnings, events, mistakes, and weaknesses. Some of these names are out of respect and others are given by certain occurrences. Mostly the names are used i n defiance to the "cracker society". The black society used this term to relate to the "white society".    The Dead family lives on a street officially named "Mains Avenue". The only black doctor in town lived on this street and it soon became known as "Doctor Street". Soon it became the unofficial name of the street known not only to the doctor's patients, but also to the rest of the black citizens of the town. White legislators soon put a stop to the incorrect naming of the street and posted notices forbidding incorrect references to it in the black neighborhood. The notices stated that the avenue "would always be known as Mains Avenue and not Doctor Street"(p. 4). In a subtle retaliation, the ci... ...ack society in those days. They kept and used names that the cracker society would forget about in a few days. By keeping such names the black community quietly defied conformation to the white society.    This novel illustrates how the human spirit can not be dominated. The black community is able to fill in the empty spaces, which the "other society" is not able to enter into or relate to. When Milkman thinks back of all of the people that he had met on his journey it reflects the essence of the novel, " Names they got from yearnings, gestures, flaws, events, mistakes, weaknesses. Names that bore witness"(p. 330). The African American population found a way to allow for life and spirit in a world controlled by "crackers". Their defiance shows that the human spirit is unstoppable.    Morrison, Toni. Song of Solomon. New York: First Plume Printing, 1987.

Erich Fromm’s Conception of the Art of Being

Fromm situates the role of social psychology as attempting to resolve the Marxian dialectical contradiction that history constructs ‘man’ while placing ‘man’ as the main source of such a construction [that being the construction of history]. In addition to this, Fromm focuses on the manner in which one can understand how passions and anxieties are molded by the social process. The importance of social psychology, within this context is thereby evident if one considers that the function of social psychology is to show how those energies [passions and anxieties] become productive forces capable of molding the social process [that of the social construction of man as well as man’s construction of history]. Fromm recognizes that social character refers to that part of the character structure of individuals which is common to most members of a particular social group, developed in response to their conditions of life. Character is shaped by the dynamic ada ptation of needs to social reality, and, in its turn, character conditions the thinking, feeling, and acting of individuals.Despite his use of the word ‘determines’, Fromm consistently stresses the dynamism of human nature whereby individuals and groups are able to resist the seduction of certain enslaving adaptations and open up the possibility of positive freedom through self-realization. The concept of social character helps to explain the link between the material basis of society and the ideological superstructure. It is, in this sense, the intermediary between the socio-economic structure and the ideas and ideals prevalent in society. The economic basis conditions social character, which determines the ideas and ideals of a class or a group. In turn, these ideas help to mould the social character and, indirectly, influence the economic structure.In comparison to Freud’s notion of human psychology, Fromm was able to keep open the possibility that, on the bas is of what we all share as human beings, we are capable of creating a society in which the prevalent relationship of domination and submission is rejected in favor of a relationship of solidarity (Fear 228). His analysis of the psychology of socio-economic change in various social classes from the time of the Reformation through to the twentieth century reveals a variety of ways of suppressing the freedom which was on offer as a result of the break from the political, economic, and spiritual shackles that bound people in pre-modern times. According to Fromm, modernity involves a breakdown of old securities which is so frightening that different social groups resort to belief systems and movements which bind them to new forms of domination and submission.In relation to Fromm’s conception of human existence within the context of the aforementioned conditions, Fromm considers the notion of existence [ethical existence] in terms of virtuosity. Fromm notes, â€Å"The virtuous or vicious character rather than single virtues or vices is the true subject matter of ethical inquiry† (Man 33). Character ethics reach back to the philosophy of Ancient Greece, and Fromm’s debt to Aristotle is freely acknowledged.The abandonment of the idea of an essential human nature striving towards a telos leaves conventional moral philosophy the impossible task of deriving moral precepts from a view of ‘untutored’ human nature (MacIntyre 54-55). Fromm explicitly criticizes this internalized authoritarianism wherein the pursuit of one’s own happiness has no positive ethical value as supreme happiness can only be found in the fulfillment of one’s duty (Man 121-3).This idea that there is a natural propensity for evil and that the moral law is necessary to suppress it is anathema to Fromm, for whom loving one’s self and loving one’s neighbor is not a phenomenon transcending humanity but rather an inherent attribute of that humani ty (Fear 98-99). Fromm notes that it is the power by which we relate to and enable solidarity with our fellowmen. Within this contextual background what is human nature for Fromm.In The Art of Being, he poses the question of what it is that distinguishes the human being from other animals. For Fromm self-awareness, reason and imagination merely disrupt the harmony which characterizes animal nature. The human being is at once part of nature and yet transcends the rest of nature. Reason drives us to endless striving for new solutions to the problems which we continuously need to confront.The human life is one of unavoidable disequilibrium in which there can be no return to a pre-human state of harmony with nature but only a development of reason towards mastery of nature, including human nature. Only by recognizing that the only meaning to life is that which is given by humans through productive living can the possibility develop of achieving happiness through the full realization of the faculties which are peculiarly human. In Man for Himself, he cites Aristotle and Spinoza as the leading humanist philosophers, but also endorses Marx’s comment in Capital that it is vital to distinguish between human nature in general and human nature as modified in each historical period.For Fromm, humanistic ethics is based on the principle that ‘good’ is what is good for us as human beings and ‘evil’ is what is detrimental to us, and the sole criterion of ethical value is human welfare. ‘Good’ is regarded as the affirmation of life through the unfolding of man’s powers and ‘virtue’ is regarded as responsibility to our own existence, whereas ‘evil’ is perceived as the crippling aspect of our power and vice is an instance of our irresponsibility toward ourselves.Drawing on Aristotle and Spinoza, Fromm commends ‘productiveness’ and the ‘productive orientation’, involving the full development of the human capacities for creativity, love, and reason. Failure to live in this way results in ‘dysfunction and unhappiness’ for the individual the occurrence of which leads to a ‘socially patterned defect’. Hence, in the aforementioned work [The Art of Being] Fromm notes that it is important to recognize the existing law [universal law] that governs all forms of human relations. Such a law ensures the necessity that we should be mindful that â€Å"there is no contact between human beings that does not affect† all human beings (13).In To Have or To Be? he contrasts the being mode with the having mode. The being mode is a situation in which activities are productive in the sense of being consciously directed at the enrichment of human existence, as opposed to the having mode in which activity is directed to acquiring wealth and power over others (33). Although he accepts that the having mode is socially dominant, he argues that, onl y a small minority are governed entirely by it. There are still aspects of most people’s lives in which they are genuinely touched by non-instrumental feelings for their fellow human beings.One of the problems in establishing pictures of the productive individual and the being mode is that psychoanalysis has traditionally focused on neuroses rather than well-being. The problem is made more complex by the theoretical move from the consideration of the mental health of the individual to that of society. Utopian thinking traditionally addresses the possibility of a happy society, but often this is seen merely as the removal of anxiety caused by material oppression or deprivation. Despite these difficulties, a clear picture of the emancipated individual in the  free society does emerge from Fromm’s work, with the emphasis on a productive disposition and social relations infused with solidarity and love.In relation to this, how is it possible to understand Fromm’s conception of the necessity to enable the individual to live a life of virtue [and hence to ‘realize’ his being or his existence] within a world dominated by various forms of simulacra enabled by mass media? In order to ensure the realization of an individual’s existence [and hence that of his being] psychology’s role, in this sense, involves the production and implementation of various methods that will enable an individual to develop his virtue and as a result of this develop the existence of solidarity and love within society.Such methods include that of enabling self-awareness amongst individuals. Self-awareness in this sense must be understood in relation to the manner in which man stands as a social constructor of both man and culture [and hence society] beyond being a mere political, ideological, or religious individual. Art of Being, in this sense, [in relation to and along Fromm’s philosophy] opts to enable the realization and the affirmati on of the self through the development of virtue in order to ensure the existence of solidarity within the human community.Works CitedFromm, Erich. The Art of Being. London: Routledge, 1993.The Fear of Freedom. New York: Routledge, 1984.Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics. New York: Routledge, 1990.To Have or to Be? London: Routledge, 1993.McIntyre, Alasdaire. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. London: Np, 1995.